In this section I present two cultural perspectives in the tradition
of Thomas Kuhn. The first attempts to outline trends in the growth
global systems science, possibly indicating a scientific revolution.
The second attempts to give an example of interdependency between
epistemology itself (the human definition of knowledge) and the
future of the global environment.
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Holistic concepts of the Earth, including its environment and biota, have been increasing in prominence (e.g. "Deep Ecology," Gaia, etc.) and there is considerable discussion about what changes in scientific thinking may be in store. In 1986 there was a major shift in the goals of geoscience towards an interdisciplinary "Earth system" view (Earth System Science Committee, 1988; International Geosphere-Biosphere Program, 1988). Changes associated with this view are now occurring in a profound way at scientific and political levels internationally.
It is interesting to look at these events in terms of a social and historical perspective (an approach that Thomas Kuhn increasingly favored in his philosophy of scientific revolutions). This view claims that both current and new scientific world views involve not just scientists, but all of society and historical developments. If we are nearing a major paradigm shift, perhaps requiring a new view of life and systems, then it should be evident at many levels of society.
The diagram in Figure 2 depicts this "Kuhnian" perspective for global geoscience, showing a trend toward integration and globalization in three critical areas represented as science, technology, and society. From this perspective, advancement from one stage to the next depends on a sufficient level of development in all three areas of the preceding stage. With respect to more systemic and perhaps holistic views of the Earth such as evolutionary Gaia and others, we may now be witnessing the maturation of Stage II in the figure, and the beginnings of Stage III where interdisciplinary global science may spawn new theory and perhaps a new worldview. From this perspective, the conditions seem right for change.
DIVERSITY | INTEGRATION | SYNTHESIS | |||
n f o r m a t i o n | Disciplinary limitations | Global Research | (Systems?) Science | o r l d v i e w | |
O O L S | (information age) | Visualization | e t h o d s | ||
s y c h e | (globalization) | u l t u r e |
A characteristic notion in statements about Gaia is that it is impossible even for humans to separate ourselves from the system of study, as reflected in the concept of "participatory science" (Abram, 1985). The current global situation appears to be developing in a way that will not allow us to avoid this issue much longer. A thought problem can illustrate this in regard to human psychology and the study of global climate:
Hypothesis 1: Scientific beliefs and our philosophy of science significantly affect cultural values and beliefs (Kuhn, 1970).
Hypothesis 2: Cultural beliefs about man's relation to nature significantly affect (through industry and policy) the amount and kind of impacts that will result from human activity. Specifically, societies with strong cultural beliefs that man is an integral part of nature tend to have less overall impact, and vice-versa. (Posey, 1989)
Hypothesis 3: Human activity significantly affects the global climate system. (Schneider, 1989)
If we accept each of the above hypotheses (all reasonable and testable, according to references indicated): then it follows that a dominant scientific paradigm wherein science must be purely objective (i.e. necessarily equating knowledge with separation from nature), will result, paradoxically, in participatory effects on the climate system.
The worldview of life as a fundamentally creative and interactive force, and corresponding adjustments in our theory of knowledge, is quite different in its effects from the idea that separation from nature is possible for scientific or other purposes. The above scenario thus claims that it is not possible to retain a belief in separation within our theory about knowledge (i.e. pure objectivity), without having it also reflected in our theory and practice as a society and in our effect on the environment. Treating strong Gaia as "metaphor" may not be a strong enough position to alter the scenario. The Western cultural tradition, for example, recognizes metaphor for cultural enrichment, but believes in science as the agent of progress. The kind of progress we will have may be a direct reflection of how we pursue science and how inclusive the worldview is made.
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Please cite as: Kineman, John Jay. 1997. "Toward a special
and general theory of autevolution." Boulder: Bear Mountain
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Please address comments to: John Jay Kineman